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Online Research Articles Introduction Juvenile justice process is a multidisciplinary field of study that requires experts and members of society to grasp the relationships between an overarching American justice system and the juvenile justice system and the general community. Those who examine juvenile justice process must necessarily study data and theories grounded from a variety of disciplines, including administration of justice, public administration, sociology, history, psychology, and the law. American society is perennially challenged by the problems of juvenile delinquency and child victimization. These problems are not new and have historically posed very serious policy and human challenges for national and local governments and members of the community. Unfortunately, these are problems that have not been sufficiently solved and which continue to be present throughout the nation. Juvenile delinquency and victimization are found in every region and every city, and they exist across every social class and every demographic group. There are no ideal community models or family profiles that guarantee immunity from the possibility of being touched by juvenile deviance or child victimization. The purpose of this online resource is to stimulate critical discussion about the attributes and idiosyncrasies of juvenile justice process. This resource is organized into thematic parts which correspond to the textbook's chapters. Some articles offer provocative arguments based on community-based social issues, other articles discuss the meaning of information collected from various investigations, and others report the policy implications of uncovered information. All of the articles have been selected from reputable scholarly journals, and additional articles are recommended for further study. Ten Critical Thinking Questions As you're reading a research article, keep in mind the questions posed below. They will help both to focus your attention and to analyze the issues presented.
Chapter 1: Juvenile Justice: An Introduction
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Chapter 1: Juvenile Justice: An Introduction Jodi Lane, et. al, reports research derived from interviews with young offenders in "Adult Versus Juvenile Sanctions: Voices of Incarcerated Youths." It is an interesting introduction to the issue of juvenile offenders confined in adult and youth facilities. In "Race, Legal Representation, and Juvenile Justice: Issues and Concerns," Lori Guevara, et. al., discuss the ongoing issue of differential legal representation for juveniles. Their analysis evaluates racial concerns in juvenile legal advocacy. Jodi Lane, Lonn Lanza-Kaduce, Charles E. Frazier, and Donna M. Bishop. "Adult Versus Juvenile Sanctions: Voices of Incarcerated Youths." Crime and Delinquency, July 2002; 48: 431 - 455. Lori Guevara, Cassia Spohn, and Denise Herz. "Race, Legal Representation, and Juvenile Justice: Issues and Concerns." Crime and Delinquency, Jul 2004; 50: 344 - 371. Recommended Articles: Ben Brown and Wm. Reed Benedict. "Bullets, Blades, and Being Afraid in Hispanic High Schools: An Exploratory Study of the Presence of Weapons and Fear of Weapon-Associated Victimization Among High School Students in a Border Town." Crime and Delinquency, Jul 2004; 50: 372 - 394. Lori Guevara, Cassia Spohn, and Denise Herz. "Race, Legal Representation, and Juvenile Justice: Issues and Concerns." Crime and Delinquency, Jul 2004; 50: 344 - 371.Chapter 2: Historical Perspectives In "Is Child Saving Dead? Public Support for Juvenile Rehabilitation," Melissa Moon and colleagues report findings which indicate that rehabilitation should be an integral goal of the juvenile correctional system. These findings suggest that an updated approach favoring classical "child saving" exists in the community. An article by Jeffrey Butts and Daniel Mears discusses which juvenile policy programs actually work. It is predicated on the observation that state and local jurisdictions throughout the United States have enacted a wide array of new juvenile justice policies in recent years. Melissa M. Moon, Jody L. Sundt, Francis T. Cullen, and John Paul Wright. "Is Child Saving Dead? Public Support for Juvenile Rehabilitation." Crime and Delinquency, Jan 2000; 46: 38 - 60. Jeffrey A. Butts and Daniel P. Mears. "Reviving Juvenile Justice in a Get-Tough Era." Youth & Society , Dec 2001; 33: 169 - 198. Recommended Articles: J. Herbie DiFonzo. " Juvenile Justice: Back to the Future?" Family Court Review, Oct 2004; 42: 673 - 677. Chapter 3: Juvenile Delinquency: Theories of Causation In "The Effects of Maltreatment and Family Structure on Minor and Serious Delinquency," Cary Heck and Anthony Walsh explore the influence of maltreatment on serious violent and property delinquency as well as on minor misbehavior offenses among a sample of white male delinquents. In this article, the authors also discuss findings that delinquents from homes broken by desertion are the most maltreated and the most delinquent. Zina McGee, in "Community Violence and Adolescent Development: An Examination of Risk and Protective Factors among African American Youth," measures the association between exposure to violence through actual attack or witnessing violent events, and delinquent peer associations. She reports on the development of behavioral problems in response to violent victimization, as well as the emotional adjustment among African American youth exposed to violence. Cary Heck and Anthony Walsh. "The Effects of Maltreatment and Family Structure on Minor and Serious Delinquency." International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, Apr 2000; 44: 178 - 193. Zina T. McGee. "Community Violence and Adolescent Development: An Examination of Risk and Protective Factors among African American Youth." Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, Aug 2003; 19: 293 - 314. Recommended Articles: Josine Junger-Tas, Denis Ribeaud, and Maarten J. L. F. Cruyff. "Juvenile Delinquency and Gender." European Journal of Criminology, Jul 2004; 1: 333 - 375. Constance L. Chapple, Kurt D. Johnson, and Les B. Whitbeck. "Gender and Arrest among Homeless and Runaway Youth: An Analysis of Background, Family, and Situational Factors." Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, Apr 2004; 2: 129 - 147. Brent B. Benda and Robert Flynn Corwyn. "The Effect of Abuse in Childhood and in Adolescence on Violence Among Adolescents." Youth & Society, Mar 2002; 33: 339 - 365. Robert Brame, Shawn D. Bushway, Raymond Paternoster, and Robert Apel. "Assessing the Effect of Adolescent Employment on Involvement in Criminal Activity." Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, Aug 2004; 20: 236 - 256. J. B. Kingree, Debra Phan, and Martie Thompson. "Child Maltreatment and Recidivism among Adolescent Detainees." Criminal Justice and Behavior, Dec 2003; 30: 623 - 643. Sonia Cota-Robles, Michelle Neiss, and David C. Rowe. "The Role of Puberty in Violent and Nonviolent Delinquency Among Anglo American, Mexican American, and African American Boys." Journal of Adolescent Research, Jul 2002; 17: 364 - 376.Chapter 4: The Delinquency Picture: Measuring Juvenile Deviance In "Perceived Fears: The Reporting Patterns of Juvenile Homicide in Chicago Newspapers," John Boulahanis and Martha Heltsley examine the reporting patterns of juvenile homicide in two major daily newspapers. The authors observe that although juvenile homicide rates have steadily declined, the number of cases receiving media attention has increased. Meda Chesney-Lind and Vickie V. Paramore argue in "Are Girls Getting More Violent? Exploring Juvenile Justice Robbery Trends" that g irls have long been forgotten when juvenile crime is discussed. Among their findings, they observe that it appears that less serious offenses, particularly those committed by girls, are being swept up into the criminal justice system. John G. Boulahanis and Martha J. Heltsley. "Perceived Fears: The Reporting Patterns of Juvenile Homicide in Chicago Newspapers." Criminal Justice Policy Review, Jun 2004; 15: 132 - 160. Meda Chesney-Lind and Vickie V. Paramore. "Are Girls Getting More Violent? Exploring Juvenile Robbery Trends." Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, May 2001; 17: 142 - 166.Recommended Articles: Ray Surette. "Self-Reported Copycat Crime Among a Population of Serious and Violent Juvenile Offenders." Crime and Delinquency, Jan 2002; 48: 46 - 69. John G. Boulahanis and Martha J. Heltsley. "Perceived Fears: The Reporting Patterns of Juvenile Homicide in Chicago Newspapers." Criminal Justice Policy Review, Jun 2004; 15: 132 - 160. Robert D. Hoge. "Standarized Instruments for Assessing Risk and Need in Youthful Offenders." Criminal Justice and Behavior, Aug 2002; 29: 380 - 396. Alex R. Piquero, Robert Brame, and Donald Lynam. "Studying Criminal Career Length Through Early Adulthood Among Serious Offenders." Crime and Delinquency, Jul 2004; 50: 412 - 435.Chapter 5: Children in Trouble and Children in Need The threat from armed juveniles is addressed by Rick Ruddell and G. Larry Mays in "Examining the Arsenal of Juvenile Gunslingers: Trends and Policy Implications." It presents an interesting case study of confiscated arms to evaluate the implications of the types of arms seized by the police, and those that likely remain in the hands of juveniles. In "Criminalizing Abused Girls," Sandra Simkins and Sarah Katz argue that the juvenile justice system treats severely abused girls as criminals. Their argument is that there is a link between their abuse and extreme behavior, and the system does not adequately understand or respond to this association. Rick Ruddell and G. Larry Mays. "Examining the Arsenal of Juvenile Gunslingers: Trends and Policy Implications." Crime and Delinquency, Apr 2003; 49: 231 - 252. Sandra Simkins and Sarah Katz. "Criminalizing Abused Girls." Violence Against Women, Dec 2002; 8: 1474 - 1499.Recommended Articles: David Finkelhor and Richard K. Ormrod. "Factors in the Underreporting of Crimes Against Juveniles." Child Maltreatment, Aug 2001; 6: 219 - 229. Steven Belenko, Jane B. Sprott, and Courtney Petersen. "Drug and Alcohol Involvement among Minority and Female Juvenile Offenders: Treatment and Policy Issues." Criminal Justice Policy Review, Mar 2004; 15: 3 - 36. Robert Brame, Jeffrey Fagan, Alex R. Piquero, Carol A. Schubert, and Laurence Steinberg. "Criminal Careers of Serious Delinquents in Two Cities." Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, Jul 2004; 2: 256 - 272. Janice Joseph and Patricia G. Pearson. "Black Youths and Illegal Drugs." Journal of Black Studies, Mar 2002; 32: 422 - 438. Laura J. Hickman, Lisa H. Jaycox, and Jessica Aronoff. "Dating Violence among Adolescents: Prevalence, Gender Distribution, and Prevention Program Effectiveness." Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, Apr 2004; 5: 123 - 142. Chapter 6: The Role of the Police In "Debunking the Myth of Officer Friendly: How African American Males Experience Community Policing," Delores D. Jones-Brown critiques a pervasive and normally regarded police-school program. It is a provocative analysis that is based on the implications of survey data. Charles M. Katz, et. al., evaluate the practice among police agencies of compiling gang intelligence lists in "The Validity of Police Gang Intelligence Lists: Examining Differences in Delinquency Between Documented Gang Members and Nondocumented Delinquent Youth." They compare the incidence of delinquency among those on gang lists, and those who are not on such lists . Delores D. Jones-Brown. "Debunking the Myth of Officer Friendly: How African American Males Experience Community Policing." Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, May 2000; 16: 209 - 229. Charles M. Katz, Vincent J. Webb, and David R. Schaefer. "The Validity of Police Gang Intelligence Lists: Examining Differences in Delinquency Between Documented Gang Members and Nondocumented Delinquent Youth." Police Quarterly, Dec 2000; 3: 413 - 437.Recommended Articles: Matthew J. Giblin. "Using Police Officers to Enhance the Supervision of Juvenile Probationers: An Evaluation of the Anchorage CAN Program." Crime and Delinquency, Jan 2002; 48: 116 - 137. Charles M. Katz, Vincent J. Webb, and David R. Schaefer. "The Validity of Police Gang Intelligence Lists: Examining Differences in Delinquency Between Documented Gang Members and Nondocumented Delinquent Youth." Police Quarterly, Dec 2000; 3: 413 - 437. Paul Michael Garrett. "Talking Child Protection: The Police and Social Workers ‘Working Together'." Journal of Social Work, Apr 2004; 4: 77 - 97. Charles M. Katz. "Issues in the Production and Dissemination of Gang Statistics: an Ethnographic Study of a Large Midwestern Police Gang Unit." Crime and Delinquency, Jul 2003; 49: 485 - 516.Chapter 7: The Role of the Court Andrew von Hirsch discusses the question of sentencing proportionality and just dessert as it relates to the disposition of juvenile offenders in "Proportionate Sentences for Juveniles: How Different Than for Adults?" He argues that "deserved" punishments for juveniles should be scaled well below those applicable to adults. In " Youthfulness Responsibility and Punishment: Admonishing Adolescents in Criminal Court," Aaron Kupchik describes interaction in a criminal (adult) court in which adolescents are punished. Andrew von Hirsch. "Proportionate Sentences for Juveniles: How Different Than for Adults?" Punishment & Society, Apr 2001; 3: 221 - 236. Aaron Kupchik. "Youthfulness Responsibility and Punishment: Admonishing Adolescents in Criminal Court." Punishment & Society, Apr 2004; 6: 149 - 173.Recommended Articles: Jennifer Tufts and Julian V. Roberts. "Sentencing Juvenile Offenders: Comparing Public Preferences and Judicial Practice." Criminal Justice Policy Review, Mar 2002; 13: 46 - 64. David L. Myers. "The Recidivism of Violent Youths in Juvenile and Adult Court: A Consideration of Selection Bias." Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, Jan 2003; 1: 79 - 101. Joseph B. Sanborn, Jr. "A Parens Patriae Figure or Impartial Fact Finder: Policy Questions and Conflicts for the Juvenile Court Judge." Criminal Justice Policy Review, Dec 2001; 12: 311 - 332.Chapter 8: Institutional Corrections for Juveniles In "Private Versus Public Juvenile Correctional Facilities: Do Differences in Environmental Quality Exist?" Gaylene Armstrong and Doris MacKenzie examine the question of whether environmental quality for offenders incarcerated in privately operated facilities will be poorer than publicly operated facilities due to the profit motivation of the private sector. In "An Outcome Evaluation of Pennsylvania's Boot Camp: Does Rehabilitative Programming within a Disciplinary Setting Reduce Recidivism?" Cynthia Kempinen and Megan Kurlychek investigate the rehabilitative effect of "shock incarceration" programs such as juvenile boot camps. They discuss whether such programs reduce the incidence of recidivism by participants after they leave these programs. Gaylene Styve Armstrong and Doris Layton MacKenzie. "Private Versus Public Juvenile Correctional Facilities: Do Differences in Environmental Quality Exist?" Crime and Delinquency, Oct 2003; 49: 542 - 563. Cynthia A. Kempinen and Megan C. Kurlychek. "An Outcome Evaluation of Pennsylvania's Boot Camp: Does Rehabilitative Programming within a Disciplinary Setting Reduce Recidivism?" Crime and Delinquency, Oct 2003; 49: 581 - 602.Recommended Articles: Chad Trulson, Ruth Triplett, and Clete Snell. "Social Control in a School Setting: Evaluating a School-Based Boot Camp." Crime and Delinquency, Oct 2001; 47: 573 - 609. Simon I. Singer. " Incarcerating Juveniles Into Adulthood: Organizational Fields of Knowledge and the Back End of Waiver." Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, Apr 2003; 1: 115 - 127. Elizabeth C. Pomeroy, Diane L. Green, and Risa Kiam. " Female Juvenile Offenders Incarcerated as Adults: A Psychoeducational Group Intervention." Journal of Social Work, Apr 2001; 1: 101 - 115. Cynthia A. Kempinen and Megan C. Kurlychek. "An Outcome Evaluation of Pennsylvania's Boot Camp: Does Rehabilitative Programming within a Disciplinary Setting Reduce Recidivism?" Crime and Delinquency, Oct 2003; 49: 581 - 602. Jeanne B. Stinchcomb and W. Clinton Terry, III. "Predicting the Likelihood of Rearrest Among Shock Incarceration Graduates: Moving Beyond Another Nail in the Boot Camp Coffin." Crime and Delinquency, Apr 2001; 47: 221 - 242.Chapter 9: Juvenile Probation, Parole, and Aftercare In "Relationships and Juvenile Offenders: The Effects of Intensive Aftercare Supervision," Joshua Meisel examines the impact of participation in the Intensive Aftercare Demonstration Project on relationships between youth and their service providers. His findings suggest that participation in the experimental group was strongly associated with youth's perceiving positive relationships with their client managers. Sarah Armstrong, in " Punishing Not-for-Profit: Implications of Nonprofit Privatization in Juvenile Punishment ," discusses the role of nonprofit organizations in the administration of punishment. Joshua S. Meisel. "Relationships and Juvenile Offenders: The Effects of Intensive Aftercare Supervision." The Prison Journal , Jun 2001; 81: 206 - 245. Sarah Armstrong. "Punishing Not-for-Profit: Implications of Nonprofit Privatization in Juvenile Punishment." Punishment & Society , Jul 2002; 4: 345 - 368.Recommended Articles: Yvonne M. Terry-McElrath and Duane C. McBride. "Local Implementation of Drug Policy and Access to Treatment Services for Juveniles." Crime and Delinquency, Jan 2004; 50: 60 - 87. Kirk Heilbrun, William Brock, Dennis Waite, Ayonda Lanier, Martin Schmid, Gretchen Witte, Michelle Keeney, Melissa Westendorf, Luis Buinavert, and Michael Shumate. "Risk Factors for Juvenile Criminal Recidivism: The Postrelease Community Adjustment of Juvenile Offenders." Criminal Justice and Behavior, Jun 2000; 27: 275 - 291. William M. Burdon, Nena P. Messina, and Michael L. Prendergast. "The California Treatment Expansion Initiative: Aftercare Participation, Recidivism, and Predictors of Outcomes." The Prison Journal, Mar 2004; 84: 61 - 80. Mercer L. Sullivan. "Youth Perspectives on the Experience of Reentry." Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, Jan 2004; 2: 56 - 71. David M. Altschuler and Rachel Brash. "Adolescent and Teenage Offenders Confronting the Challenges and Opportunities of Reentry." Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, Jan 2004; 2: 72 - 87.Chapter 10: Community-Based Juvenile Programs The issue of curfews is addressed within the context of race in "Juvenile Curfews and Race: A Cautionary Note." In this article, J. David Hirschel and colleagues critique the adoption of curfew policies, especially as they pertain to the incidence of juvenile deviance among racial minorities. In " Strengthening Community-Based Programming for Juvenile Sexual Offenders: Key Concepts and Paradigm Shifts," John Hunter and his coauthors advocate greater investment of public funds in the development and refinement of community-based intervention programs. They argue that clinically and legally integrated programming, using newer social-ecological methodologies and supports, offers the promise of reducing the number of youth who require residential placement, shortening residential lengths of stay and improving the transition of residentially treated youth back into community settings. J. David Hirschel, Charles W. Dean, and Doris Dumond. "Juvenile Curfews and Race: A Cautionary Note." Criminal Justice Policy Review, Sep 2001; 12: 197 - 214. John A. Hunter, Stephen A. Gilbertson, Dani Vedros, and Michael Morton. "Strengthening Community-Based Programming for Juvenile Sexual Offenders: Key Concepts and Paradigm Shifts." Child Maltreatment, May 2004; 9: 177 - 189.Recommended Articles: Rob White. "Communities, Conferences and Restorative Social Justice." Criminal Justice , May 2003; 3: 139 - 160. Katharine W. Scrivner. "Crossover Kids: The Dilemma of the Abused Delinquent." Family Court Review , Jan 2002; 40: 135 - 152. Kathleen M. Heide and Eldra P. Solomon. " Treating Today's Juvenile Homicide Offenders."Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice , Jan 2003; 1: 5 - 31.Chapter 11: Anti-Social Youth Cultures and the Case of Youth Gangs In "Perceptions of Risk Factors for Female Gang Involvement Among African American and Hispanic Women," Chanequa Walker-Barnes and Craig Mason examine ethnic minority girls' perceptions of risk factors for female gang involvement. Fin-Asge Ebensen and colleagues observe in " Youth Gangs and Definitional Issue: When is a Gang a Gang, and Why Does It Matter?" that definitional questions have assumed greater significance in the wake of broad-ranging prevention and intervention strategies. They examine the youth gang phenomenon using five membership definitions. Chanequa J. Walker-Barnes and Craig A. Mason. "Perceptions of Risk Factors for Female Gang Involvement Among African American and Hispanic Women." Youth & Society, Mar 2001; 32: 303 - 336. Finn-Aage Esbensen, L. Thomas Winfree, Jr, Ni He, and Terrance J. Taylor. "Youth Gangs and Definitional Issue: When is a Gang a Gang, and Why Does It Matter?" Crime and Delinquency, Jan 2001; 47: 105 - 130.Recommended Articles: Beth Bjerregaard. "Antigang Legislation and its Potential Impact: The Promises and the Pitfalls." Criminal Justice Policy Review, Jun 2003; 14: 171 - 192. Kevin A. Yoder, Les B. Whitbeck, and Dan R. Hoyt. "Gang Involvement and Membership among Homeless and Runaway Youth." Youth & Society, Jun 2003; 34: 441 - 467. Richard L. Dukes and Judith A. Stein. "Gender and Gang Membership: A Contrast of Rural and Urban Youth on Attitudes and Behavior." Youth & Society, Jun 2003; 34: 415 - 440. Xiaoming Li, Bonita Stanton, Robert Pack, Carole Harris, Lesley Cottrell, and James Burns. "Risk and Protective Factors Associated With Gang Involvement Among Urban African American Adolescents." Youth & Society, Dec 2002; 34: 172 - 194. Wendy Reiboldt. "Adolescent Interactions With Gangs, Family, and Neighborhoods: An Ethnographic Investigation." Journal of Family Issues, Mar 2001; 22: 211 - 242.Chapter 12: Global Perspectives: Juvenile Justice in an International Context In "Juvenile Crime and Sanctions in the Netherlands," Karin Wittebrood discusses the calculation of juvenile crime, including discussions of discrepancies found when using police statistics and self-report studies. She also provides an overview of the penal interventions applied in the Netherlands and the number of young people affected by them. In "Social Control, Delinquency, and Victimization among Kibbutz Adolescents," Ben-Zion Cohen and Ruth Zeira study delinquency behaviors among a sample of high school students in the kibbutzim of northern Israel. Karin Wittebrood. "Juvenile Crime and Sanctions in the Netherlands." Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, Nov 2003; 19: 435 - 453. Ben-Zion Cohen and Ruth Zeira. "Social Control, Delinquency, and Victimization among Kibbutz Adolescents." International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, Dec 1999; 43: 503 - 513.Recommended Articles: Barbara J. Nowak. "Keeping it Better in the Bahamas: A Nation's Socioeconomic Response to Juvenile Crime." Journal of Black Studies, Mar 2001; 31: 483 - 493. Cristina Rechea Alberola and Esther FernÁndez Molina. "Juvenile Justice in Spain: Past and Present." Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, Nov 2003; 19: 384 - 412. Clayton A. Hartjen and S. Priyadarsini. "Gender, Peers, and Delinquency: A Study of Boys and Girls in Rural France." Youth & Society, Jun 2003; 34: 387 - 414. Alexander T. Vazsonyi and Martin Killias. "Immigration and Crime Among Youth in Switzerland." Criminal Justice and Behavior, Jun 2001; 28: 329 - 366. Francis Wing-Lin Lee. " Teens of the Night: The Young Night Drifters in Hong Kong." Youth and Society, Mar 2000; 31: 363 - 384.
In "Getting Tough with Juvenile Offenders: Explaining Support for Sanctioning Youths as Adults," Daniel P. Mears discusses explanations for support or opposition to processing juveniles through the criminal justice system. It is an interesting investigation, and identifies several explanatory factors. Barbara Bloom and colleagues investigate gender-focused programs at the state and national levels in "Moving Toward Justice for Female Juvenile Offenders in the New Millennium: Modeling Gender-Specific Policies and Programs." Using extensive research data, the authors argue that certain identified risk and protective factors can be used to design gender-appropriate policies and programs. Daniel P. Mears. "Getting Tough With Juvenile Offenders: Explaining Support for Sanctioning Youths as Adults." Criminal Justice and Behavior, Apr 2001; 28: 206 - 226. Barbara Bloom, Barbara Owen, Elizabeth Piper Deschenes, and Jill Rosenbaum. "Improving Juvenile Justice for Females: A Statewide Assessment in California." Crime and Delinquency, Oct 2002; 48: 526 - 552.Recommended Articles: Alida V. Merlo and Peter J. Benekos. "Defining Juvenile Justice in the 21st Century." Lee Michael Johnson, Ronald L. Simons, and Rand D. Conger. "Criminal Justice System Involvement and Continuity of Youth Crime: A Longitudinal Analysis." Youth & Society, Sep 2004; 36: 3 - 29. Barbara Bloom, Barbara Owen, Elizabeth Piper Deschenes, and Jill Rosenbaum. "Moving Toward Justice for Female Juvenile Offenders in the New Millennium: Modeling Gender-Specific Policies and Programs." Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, Feb 2002; 18: 37 - 56. Judith D. Moran. "Fragmented Courts and Child Protection Cases: A Modest Proposal for Reform." Family Court Review, Oct 2002; 40: 487 - 501.
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